The First World War Satire Essay Example for Free

The First World War Satire Essay How does Blackadder Goes Forth satirize the First World War and how does it fit into the situation comedy genre as a whole? A situation comedy, or a sit-com, is a comedy series projected from radio or television. The programme itself is based upon how characters react to unusual or comic situations. Situation comedies follow specific characters that encounter situations and then they try and deal with them. In each episode of a situation comedy, the story follows the same characters. Most situation comedies are set in a specific place that forms the set for every episode. A flat is commonly used in situation comedies for the set. Popular examples of flat share situation comedies are Only Fools and Horses and Friends. These two sit-coms are extremely popular, and both are set in a flat. Situation comedies used to form gaps in between more important shows. This was soon changed as the demand for sit-coms massively grew. They are now one of the most dominant television genres around. Blackadder is a situation comedy. It is a most unusual sit-com as in each series the scene is based on a different timeline. Blackadder has been through Elizabethan times, many other timelines and important historical times, and then ends up with the final series in World War One. Most other sit-coms dont do this instead each of their different series is set on the same timeline and in the same place. This is one of the points that make Blackadder different, as in each series the eager watchers dont know what to expect. Blackadder goes forth is also different from the usual sit-com as it is the same situation every episode. The majority of sit-coms dont do this, instead they are based in the same place, but with a different humorous situation with which the characters have to deal with. In Blackadder Goes Forth the situation is exactly the same just the characters deal with it differently. The situation is that Blackadder himself is trying to escape and relieve himself of the hideous atrocities of the First World War. Of course like in any other sit-com, things go very wrong for him and comic experiences pop up along the way. Altogether Blackadder fits into the situation comedy genre in a sense, as it is a sit-com, but is totally different from the majority of other sit-coms. Blackadder has a different story every episode, involves the same characters in every episode, and takes place in the same place in every episode. The differences of Blackadder to the mainstream of sit-coms are shown obviously. This is shown in many ways; one is that Blackadder is set in different historical time in each different series. This attracts viewers to watch Blackadder, because they want to see something new rather than the usual flat share show with people shouting bawdy jokes. This is why the producers of Blackadder have made the show different from the usual sit-com. Another reason why Blackadder is different from most sit-coms is that the situation is the same in every episode of Blackadder. Nearly every other sit-com has different situations and different ways in which the characters tackle these situations. Blackadder Goes Forth doesnt. The situation is of Blackadder trying to escape the war in any way he can. He tries lots of different approaches to deal with his problem, but every episode he fails. This becomes very amusing as no matter how hard he tries; he just cant get out of fighting in the war. Another very important feature in Blackadder that is dissimilar to other sit-coms is the way that even though the scene is set on a historical time scale, Blackadder still has 20th Century views. All the other characters in the whole programme have views of life that relate to the time scale that they are set in, while Blackadder has views of life that we would. This is what makes Blackadder so hilarious to us, as we can relate to precisely what Blackadder is saying and thinking, while all the other characters in the play are trapped in that time zone with historical thoughts, Blackadder makes fun of all the stupid things that happened within that time zone and has the same views and points to express as we do. The one other reason why Blackadder Goes Forth doesnt fit well into the genre of situation comedies is that Blackadder uses satirical comments and elements throughout the programmes. This makes the programme extremely funny, but also makes a point in which we can understand and learn from. Satire is using humour or exaggeration to show what it is bad about a person or thing. Blackadder uses this strongly in all of its episodes in all of its series. Blackadder: Well George, I strongly suspect your long wait for certain death is nearly at an end This is portraying the scene that everyone who wanted action in the war is going to be sent to his or her deaths. The reason why the produces of Blackadder decided to make different historical time scales for their series was possibly so they could use satire to make a point about those different time lines. With Blackadder using satire in this way it gives viewers the humour and hilarity that we get and love from all sit-coms, but also spreading a point across the country about how bad those situations were and how badly our ancestors handled them. So the reason why Blackadder is a funny character is because he is the only sane man and fools surround him. This makes us learn from mistakes that have happened in the past but also provides us with the amusement that we want when we watch a sit-com. Satirical elements are present in Blackadder, even in the title sequence at the start of each episode. There are many satirical elements in the title sequence; the first one being the two rows of five men marching after a sergeant majors command. The first row of soldiers is bandsmen wearing the traditional red colours of the English army. The second row of soldiers is armed forces, wearing the up-to-date camouflage green. This is satirizing the tactics of the British army. The way in which Blackadder does this is by having the bandsmen in red marching in front of the armed forces, it symbolizes that the bandsmen are more important. It shows that playing instruments and wearing smart colours and clothes into battle is more important then staying undetected with camouflage and looking scruffy. This satirizes British tactics and approach to war. It also shows that the British army is out of date, as fighting in bright colours was a thing of the past, showing that the commanders were just old forgotten war heroes who needed to be slapped up-to-date if they wanted to keep their men alive. It also satirizes the fact that blood is to come for those soldiers are behind. The blood red of the bandsmen shirts marching in front of the armed forces means that blood is to come for them and pour from their bullet stricken bodies. There is a character in Blackadder Goes Forth, named baldrick. In the title sequence he is out of place in the band and is franticly running around to find his place. Baldrick is a private in the army. This satirizes the privates as being stupid and out of place fighting in such a war. Also that Baldrick is in the band, and not in the armed forces row like he should be satirizes that he is out of place in the army, and will do more good playing a triangle in a parade. As baldrick is out of place, there is still no place for him in the ranks of men as both are of equal numbers and there is no more room for him. This emphases the point even more that the dim privates are out of place in the war, and they shouldnt be put there, as they dont understand it. How can a man be expected to shoot if he cant even find a place in a band? This is the satirizing point that Blackadder is making when the character baldrick is out of position. Also in the title sequence General Melchett and Captain Darling are standing atop a podium watching the soldiers march. General Melchett is wearing cavalry clothes. This satirizes the generals in the war by showing that they are out of touch and out of date with the tactics of war. They still think that cavalry are the best option to winning a battle, but now that machine guns have been invented cavalry are useless. Yet the generals do not know this, and assume that old tactics are good, but they arent. Captain Darling is cowering behind the General. This satirizes the Captains in the war. This shows that they were cowards and used the Generals as protection to stop them having to fight. Further on in the title sequence Lieutenant George is smiling in a childish way as he marches forwards. This is satirizing the pompous Lieutenants. Showing that they believe that war is just a game, and they should enjoy every minute off it. This is of course the wrong attitude to take to war, as you killed be obliterated any second. Aside from the title sequence, the whole programme contains satirical elements throughout its course, one of these being the living conditions of the soldiers shown in the programme. Blackadder opens up the programme of the last ever episode of Blackadder goes forth with: Hullo, Somme Public Baths. No running, shouting or piddling in the shallow end. Aside from this being droll, it also makes a great satirical point on how the living conditions of the soldiers actually were. The soldiers were caked in mud up to their elbows and sopping wet with the continuous moral beating rain. It satirizes how bad the living conditions really were by basically saying it was wet, and the rain was the least of the soldiers problems at that time. Private baldrick explains that the coffee that all the soldiers have been drinking for months is actually hot mud. He also describes what each of the elements of the coffee is. He states that the milk is saliva, the sugar is dandruff and although he doesnt state what the chocolate sprinklings are, he gives us a very good idea of what they could be! All this satirizes the living conditions of the poor soldiers that had to live in here day in and day out. They were soaked in rain, encrusted in mud, and drinking hot mire with all manner of things inside, but worst of all being pounded by shells all day long. Blackadder Goes Forth also satirizes everyones attitudes to war. Starting with the Generals, they had the worst attitude towards war. As the Generals were not in the trenches and not experiencing the horrors of war, they had no idea what it was like. The generals still thought war was what it used to be, fighting against unarmed enemies that cant win the fight. As general Melchett explains, That pigmy woman with the sharpened mango could have seriously Apart from this being comical, it has a real satirizing point to it. The old wars in which the English used to fight were against aborigines with no weapons other than maybe a spear. The English couldnt really loose a battle against such little an opposition, and from that day they thought they could win any battle that faced them, as they were full of themselves over their glorious victories. This is the attitude that the generals still possessed when commanding in World War One, especially in the Somme area that Blackadder goes forth is set. It satirizes the generals lack of understanding of modern warfare, and shows how they believe they will always win. In the episode Goodbyeee, Field Marshall Haig is playing with toy soldiers. This is satirizing the generals perspective of warfare, and apart from it being hilarious it proves just what the generals were like. They thought that war was a game and that it didnt matter who won or lost. This is shown as Haig knocks over a handful of the plastic soldiers on his model battlefield. Blackadder himself satirizes the advance and progress the army has made while at war, Weve advanced as far as an asthmatic ant with heavy shopping. Apart from this being droll, it satirizes how far the army progresses with such stupid and out of date tactics and childish generals. This relates highly to World War One as the army progressed about a few inches a year, as the generals just didnt know what to do. Another main thing that is satirized is the ranks of different troops. With the generals, they thought that war was just a game. This is shown and satirized in Blackadder by the way the general plays with toy soldiers. He used this as his tactics, moving individual toys and then knocking them over in one fell swoop. This actually shows that he expected his men to die, but sent them in regardless of the consequences, as he was bored of sitting in one place for a long period of time. Being incredibly child-like satirizes the lieutenants. This is shown in the character George. He is satirizing the pompous upper-class lieutenant. He always has a silly grin on his face and relates everything that happens in the war to a well know game of some sort. He even states that he played tiddly winks when signing up to volunteer for the war. He makes such remarks as by saying, we ducked and we dived. This is satirizing views of many soldiers in the war, as they just didnt have a clue about what it was really like. They just thought it was like participating in a sport match, and whatever the outcome, no one would get hurt, but how wrong they were. The other rank that is displayed and satirized in Blackadder is the private. Baldrick plays this role, and acts as the dim private, which is exactly what he is. He is always one step behind everyone else, in the mental way, and in the literal way. As in the title sequence he is behind everyone, and in the speeches he is behind everyone. He is satirizing the low-class dim private. At the end of the last episode Goodbyeee, just before they are about to go over the top, baldrick is more concerned about getting a splinter while climbing the ladder then getting mowed down in a hail of lead by a machine gun. This is because he doesnt understand what is going on. This is satirizing the fact that the dim people shouldnt be there, because if they dont understand what they are doing, how can they possibly fight? Captain Blackadder plays the other rank. He is the only commonsensical man in the whole warfare situation. This is how Blackadder is made funny, as he satirizes everything around him and makes fun of everything. He shares our views of the war, and tries in vain to get out of fighting just as we would, but to no amend, as the generals cant understand why he would possibly not want to go out and fight. This satirizes the generals lack of understanding. Fools surround Blackadder, this satirizes that everyone fighting was a fool, and with such stupid people everywhere, how can they win the war. It also satirizes that no one understands the war, no matter how clever or how high rank. And that everyone is as stupid as the private as they have no idea to fight a war more than he does. The equipment is the last thing that is satirized. This is done by the sticks that the higher ranking officers hold. These sticks do nothing at all. I wouldnt want to face a machine gun without one of these George explains to Blackadder. This is satirizing the fact that some of the equipment had no purpose, and some of the people didnt have a clue what a machine gun could actually do to you.

Essay on Shakespeares Sources for A Midsummer Nights Dream

Shakespeare's Sources for A Midsummer Night's Dream  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A Midsummer Night's Dream is one of Shakespeare's most-performed plays: a delightful comedy, but full of enough potential tragedy to avoid becoming saccharine. Much of that tragic possibility comes from Shakespeare's sources, as he directly acknowledges in Act V. The entertainments Philostrate proposes, all stories taken from Ovid's Metamorphoses, show the unhappy endings all too likely to spring from tales like that of the four lovers of Shakespeare's play, or the strife-torn fairy rulers. "The battle with the Centaurs, to be sung / By an Athenian eunuch with the harp" (V.i.44-5) is the first of Philostrate's suggestions, and the most blatant. Centaurs are almost an epitome of the dangerous fairy-world that underlies so much of Shakespeare's play: half-man, half-beast, they recall Bottom's similar, albeit more humorous, condition. Lust and jealousy cause the undoing of the marriage feast, for the Centaurs' theft of women provokes a battle. Thanks to the fairy intervention, all in Shakespeare's play are happy with their spouses: but how might the wedding have been marred if Demetrius and Lysander both still loved Hermia? "These are the forgeries of jealousy" (II.i.81) cries Titania to Oberon, and their contention, likewise a result of lust and jealousy and unbridled nature, luckily enters the play only peripherally. Theseus' law, and fairy medicine, overrules the lusty, animal side of love and prevents such violence from marring, indeed unmaking, the comedy. "The riot of the tipsy Bacchanals, / Tearing the Thracian singer [Orpheus] in their rage" (V.i.48-9) is an alternate selection, but one just as significant. "The mad Ciconian women" (p.259) cry "There is ... ... scene. The meta-drama overcomes the actual play, and what was tragic becomes "tragical mirth," what was a dire warning to heed society's laws or fear the consequences is a gross entertainment and slapstick. Theseus' laws have overcome the bloody, passionate side of love: the man himself appears to have ceased his earlier, youthful amours to settle down with a wife, Hippolyta, vigorous enough to match his own martial nature. Indeed, he discounts the entertainments as those which he has already heard or told -- they are old news to him, settled affairs, and he needs hear of them no more. The only reason "Pyramus and Thisbe" receives a hearing is its odd synopsis -- and equally odd presentation! Shakespeare shows the alternate endings his play could all too easily have taken, to make us relish all the more the happy solution he and the characters have found.   

Policy Framework Development

Introduction In this essay, I will discuss the welfare state since World War II and how it has impacted society in England and Wales. In addition, I will discuss the importance of social policy, how it was developed and the four most frequently used approaches. The ideas behind these approaches will be explained and some examples of such policies in different fields will be provided. Overall, evidence will be provided on how social policy became educational discipline in its own right. The origins of the National Health Service One of the most drastic social policies put into action in England and Wales has been the implementation of free medical treatment for all, through the National Health Service. According to Alcock (2008), illness was very common and health care expensive before the National Health Service (NHS) came into existence in 1948. Poor housing, overcrowding, poor sanitation, malnutrition and lack of education were common, enabling the spread of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis. Life expectancy was considerably lower, at a mere 60 years. During the 19th century, health care was provided through the workhouse, or municipal and voluntary hospitals. The rich were often treated in their own homes or in a private practice. A lady Almoner was responsible for carrying out a means test, which determined who got medical treatment, she was also responsible for approaching charities for funding. (Alcock, 2008) The ideology behind the development of the NHS was to put an end to ignorance, squalor , disease and poverty, by ensuring health care was available to all. This included free treatments for all, a family benefit scheme and full employment. Although some saw it as a politically risky move, Prime Minister Churchill gave his full backing for the NHS in 1943, thus starting the reform towards free health care. As Bochel reports: â€Å"During 1944, White Paper proposing a national health service, and the election of a Labour Government in 1945 made the establishment of a NHS almost certain. The necessary legislation was passed in the 1946 National Health Service Act.† (Bochel, 2009, p. 332). Finally, the NHS became a reality on July 5th 1948. It was an enormous achievement but due to the significant investment in time, money and resources, it was not met without opposition- this was a time when there were food and fuel shortages, as well as a dollar economic crisis. However, the general public wanted the new service to succeed, and as such Britain became the first country in Western Europe to offer free medical service, funded through the general taxation system. According to Bevan: â€Å"It was based on three core principles which include; it meets the needs of everyone, to be free at the point of delivery and it to be based on clinical needs, not ability to pay.† (National Health Service History, 2012). These core principles have remained the same since the creation of the NHS (Bochel, 2009,p. 332). However, free health care as provided by the NHS proved to be very expensive, with the drug bill increasing from ?13 million to ?41 million within the first two years of its creation. Additionally, as medicine progressed as a science, new technologies and methods increased the cost of the NHS from ?200 million to ?300 million. The provision of free health care for all led to excess demand, adding pressure to the already limited medical resources. The Government was reluctant to cover the excess cost, as it needed to invest in other sectors, such as education. As a result, charges for certain services, such as spectacles and dentures, as well as for prescriptions were implemented (Alcock2008). Neo-liberal ideology and the NHS In 1979, when the NHS had been in place for several decades, a Neo Liberal Government was elected, with little sympathy for the state provision of welfare and the high level of expenditure associated with it (Bochel, 2009, p. 332). Neo-liberal ideology supports the reorganization of the financial and organizational aspects of healthcare services worldwide, based on the argument that the then-existing health systems had failed. According to the recommendation report in 1983, four major problems of health systems globally were: i) misallocation of resources; ii) inequity of accessing care; iii) inefficiency; and iv) exploding costs. It was claimed that government hospitals and clinics were often inefficient, suffering from highly centralised decision-making, wide fluctuations in allocations, and poor motivation of workers (Alcock, 2008). Quality of care was also low, patient waiting times were long and medical consultations were short, misdiagnosis and inappropriate treatment were comm on. Also, the public sector had suffered from serious shortages of medical drugs and equipment, and the purchasing of brand-name pharmaceuticals instead of generic drugs was one of the main reasons for wasting the money spent on health (Navarro, 2007). Private providers were more technically efficient and offer a service that was perceived to be of higher quality. Neo-liberal policies Examples of policies implemented by the Neo-Liberal Government were those based on cost-effectiveness. Cost-effectiveness was presented as the main tool for choosing among possible health interventions for specific health problems. Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) were used to measure the burden of disease and thus allowing comparisons between specific health problems. Greater reliance on the private sector to deliver clinical services was encouraged, with the expectation that it would raise efficiency. It was suggested that Governments should privatise the healthcare services, by selling the public goods and services, buying the services from the private sector, and supporting the private sector with subsidies. In order to increase efficiency, unnecessary legal and administrative barriers faced by private doctors and pharmacies would need to be removed. Neoliberal policies in healthcare were heavily criticised as they reportedly misdiagnosed the problems and its treatment, lea ding to a situation worse than it was before the policies were implemented. Shrinking from welfare state to minimum liberal state, retreating from most of the public services and letting the area to irrationality of market dynamics is making pharmaceutical, medical technology, insurance, and law companies the lead actors. It has been claimed that a system providing services according ability-to-pay rather than healthcare need, ensures decreased availability and accessibility to services† (Danis et al., 2008; Janes et al., 2006; Unger et al, 2008). New Labour and the NHS In 1997, the New Labour Government was elected, with a main focus to make a significant improvement on peoples’ health. This was expected to be done by rebuilding the health services within the NHS through â€Å"decentralizing of power and decision-making to local health trusts†. Decentralising was important in order to achieve increased responsiveness to local health needs by widening patient choice, and promoting organizational efficiency. The underlying premise was that decentralization would shorten the bureaucratic hierarchical structure and allow flexibility for local trust managers and health professionals- thus improving organizational performance from the ‘bottom-up’ (Crinson, 2009 :p 139). In 1997 the Government put forward its plans in the White Paper: â€Å"The New NHS: Modern, Dependable† (Blakemore 2003:p 172). The objective was to reduce bureaucratic control from the centre and restore autonomy to health professionals within the NHS. A t the same time, the Government was determined to limit public expenditure by looking at what was already put in place by the previous government. One of the new Labour objectives was to reduce the number of people on the treatment waiting list by offering patients greater choice of provider at the point of inpatient referral. This was put in place from January 2006 onwards, where patients have been offered a choice of at least four hospitals when referred for treatment by their general practitioner. In addition, a new inpatient booking system was put in place, where patients themselves could book their place and time of treatment (Adam, 2006). In 1998, health inequality targets were included in the public service agreements with local government and cross-department machinery was created to follow up a ‘Programme of Actions’, which had the general aim to reduce inequality in terms of life expectancy at birth, and to reduce the infant mortality rate by 10 per cent by 20 10 (Glennerster, 2007 : p 253). Examples of health care policies implemented by New Labour are: Maximum waiting times for in-patient treatment: six months by 2005 and three months by 2008; Patients able to see a primary care practitioner within twenty-four hours and a GP within forty- eight hours; Maximum waiting time of four-hours in emergency rooms; Plans to improve cancer treatment and health inequalities. In addition, in order to improve efficiency, two bodies were set up to give advice and push for more consistent and effective clinical standards in determining the cost of new drugs and procedures. This was the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) (Glennerster,2007 : p 250). However, as argued by Peckham and colleagues (year?), the decentralization of the NHS had mixed results. They note that the process of decentralization was not clear and that there were contradictions, reflecting a simultaneous process of centralization and decentralization, in which local perf ormance indicators were centrally-set. If achieved, this resulted in increased financial and managerial autonomy. However, there was some supportive evidence that decentralization had improved patients’ health outcome, as well as improved efficiency in coordination and communication processes (Crinson, 2009 : p 140). The Government at the time met its target for treatment waiting lists by 2000- the number of people on the waiting list had fallen by 150,000. However, one main criticism came from the doctors, nurses and other health professionals where they were the ones dealing with prioritizing patients based on medical need, whilst having to explain to other anxious and angry patients why their treatment is delayed (Crinson, 2009). Coalition Government and the NHS In 2010, the newly established Coalition Government published the NHS White Paper ‘Equity and Excellence: Liberating the NHS policy’, prepared by the Department of Health. This policy included important changes compared to those proposed by the previous Government, and reflected the aims of the Coalition’s five year plan. Some of the proposed changes include: i) responsibility for commissioning of NHS services shifted to GPs, as the Primary Care Trusts and Strategic Health Authorities were dissolved, and ii) Foundation Trust status granted to all hospitals, ensuring increased autonomy and decision-making power. These reforms were part of the Coalition’s broader goal to give more power to local communities and empower GPs. By way of estimation, it is expected that this cost to about 45% for the NHS management. Strengthening of the NHS Foundation Trusts in order for these Trusts to provide financial regulation for all NHS services was another objective of the reform. An independent NHS board was set up, with the aim to lead and oversee specialised care and GP commissioning respectively. The objectives behind the Coalition Government’s plans was to increase health spending in real terms for each year of Parliament, with full awareness that this would impact the spending in other areas. The Coalition Government still maintained Beverage idea that all health care should be free and available to everybody at the point of delivery, instead of based on the ability to pay. It was expected that this approach would improve standards, support professional responsibility, deliver better value for money and as such create a healthier nation. Although the Prime Minister rectified it in his speech, the Government failed to provide a clear account of the shortcomings of the NHS and its challenges. The preparation of the White Paper, which was to pass the coalition committee’s examination, saw more compromises. The elimination of PCTs was not foretold but the conservatives would make PCTs remain as the statutory commissioning authority responsible for public health despite their commitment to devolving real budgets to GPs. It was rumoured that the Liberal Democrats policy of elected representatives to PCTs appear weak. The compromise was to give greater responsibility for public health to local authorities and eliminate PCTs. This resulted in the formation of the GP commissioning consortia and the Health and Wellbeing Boards. Despite concerns raised by stakeholders, the proposals saw just a few changes. Maybe we can call it a missed chance in retrospect. Conclusion In conclusion, it can be argued that without the NHS coming to force when it did at such a dire time after the Second World War, the already high mortality rates would have continued to rise. The NHS was vital in changing peoples’ lives in England and Wales and around the world. The system was designed meet everyone needs, regardless of financial abilities and without discrimination. Many changes have taken place since the birth of the NHS in 1948. Four different Governments adapted the NHS with their policies and legislation. However, throughout its evolution, the NHS still provides healthcare free of charge, as was intended from its conception. References Alcock, (2008). Social Policy in Britain. 3rd ed.Basingstoke: Palgrace Macmillan Alexion Pharma (2010). Politics and Policy [Online] www. [email protected] Available From: http://www.pnh-alliance.org.uk/politics-and-policy/the-department-of-health-publishes-equity-and-excellence-liberating-the-nhs. [Accessed on: 06 Nov. 12] Blakemore, K (2003). Social Policy an introduction. 2nd ed. United Kingdom: Open University Press. Blakemore, K, Griggs, E. (2003). Social Policy an introduction. 3nd ed.England: Open University Press. Bochel, H., Bochel, C., Page, R., Sykes, R. (2009). Social Policy Themes, Issues and Debates. 2nd ed. England: Pearson Education Limited. Crinson, I. (2009) Health Policy a critical perspective. London: Sage Publication Ltd. Glennerster, H. (2007). British Social Policy. 3rd ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Danis, M.Z., Karatas, K., Sahin, M.C. (2008). Reflections of neoliberal policies on healthcare field and social work practices. World Applied Sciences Journal, 5(2), 224-235. Ezeonu, I. (2008). Crimes of globalization: health care, HIV and the poverty of neoliberalism in Sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Social Inquiry, 1(2), 113-134. Hospital Stories from Hell: National Health Videos (1998) [DVD] London: Channel 4. Recorded off –air 19/03/1998 Macara, S. ( 1998). Nursing Studies. BBC News: True to its principles [Online]. Available from: NHS Choices. Moonie N. (2003). Health and Social Care. Series ed. Oxford: Heine Educational Publisher. Navarro, V. (2007). Neoliberalism as a class ideology; or, the political causes of the growth of inequalities. Int J Health Serv, 37(1), 47-62. NHS. ( 2012). Nursing Studies. About the NHS: NHS core principles [Online]. Available from: NHS Choices. Oliver, Adam. â€Å"Further progress towards reducing waiting times†. Health Policy Monitor, April 2006. Available at http://www.hpm.org/survey/uk/a7/1 . [Accessed on: 14 Nov. 12] Pennies from Bevan: National Health Videos (1998) [DVD] London: Chanel 4. Recorded off –air 14/06/1998 Rivett, G (2012). Nursing Studies, National Health Service History. [Online]. Available from: http://www. NHS history.net [Accessed 06 March 2012). Socialist Health (2010). Coalition Health Policy 2010 [Online] http://www.sochealth.co.uk. Available From: http://www.sochealth.co.uk/campaigns/health-and-social-care-bill-2012/coalition-health-policy-2010/. [Accessed on: 06 Nov.12] Viveash, B, Senior, M. (1998). Health and Illness. London: Macmillan Press.

Probability of Randomly Choosing a Prime Number

Number theory is a branch of mathematics  that concerns itself with the set of integers. We restrict ourselves somewhat by doing this as we do not directly study other numbers, such as irrationals. However, other types of real numbers are used. In addition to this, the subject of probability has many connections and intersections with number theory. One of these connections has to do with the distribution of prime numbers. More specifically we may ask, what is the probability that a randomly chosen integer from 1 to x is a prime number? Assumptions and Definitions As with any mathematics problem, it is important to understand not only what assumptions are being made, but also the definitions of all of the key terms in the problem. For this problem we are considering the positive integers, meaning the whole numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . up to some number x. We are randomly choosing one of these numbers, meaning that all x of them are equally likely to be chosen. We are trying to determine the probability that a prime number is chosen. Thus we need to understand the definition of a prime number. A prime number is a positive integer that has exactly two factors. This means that the only divisors of prime numbers are one and the number itself. So 2,3 and 5 are primes, but 4, 8 and 12 are not prime. We note that because there must be two factors in a prime number, the number 1 is not prime. Solution  for Low Numbers The solution to this problem is straightforward for low numbers x. All that we need to do is simply count the numbers of primes that are less than or equal to x. We divide the number of primes less than or equal to x by the number x. For example, to find the probability that a prime is selected from 1 to 10 requires us to divide the number of primes from 1 to 10 by 10. The numbers 2, 3, 5, 7 are prime, so the probability that a prime is selected is 4/10 40%. The probability that a prime is selected from 1 to 50 can be found in a similar way. The primes that are less than 50 are: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43 and 47. There are 15 primes less than or equal to 50. Thus the probability that a prime is selected at random is 15/50 30%. This process can be carried out by simply counting primes as long as we have a list of primes. For example, there are 25 primes less than or equal to 100. (Thus the probability that a randomly chosen number from 1 to 100 is prime is 25/100 25%.) However, if we do not have a list of primes, it could be computationally daunting to determine the set of prime numbers that are less than or equal to a given number x. The Prime Number Theorem If you do not have a count of the number of primes that are less than or equal to x, then there is an alternate way to solve this problem. The solution involves a mathematical result known as the prime number theorem. This is a statement about the overall distribution of the primes and can be used to approximate the probability that we are trying to determine. The prime number theorem states that there are approximately x / ln(x) prime numbers that are less than or equal to x. Here ln(x) denotes the natural logarithm of x, or in other words the logarithm with a base of the number e. As the value of x increases the approximation improves, in the sense that we see a decrease in the relative error between the number of primes less than x and the expression x / ln(x). Application of the Prime Number Theorem We can use the result of the prime number theorem to solve the problem we are trying to address. We know by the prime number theorem that there are approximately x / ln(x) prime numbers that are less than or equal to x. Furthermore, there are a total of x positive integers less than or equal to x. Therefore the probability that a randomly selected number in this range is prime is (x / ln(x) ) /x 1 / ln(x). Example We can now use this result to approximate the probability of randomly selecting a prime number out of the first billion integers. We calculate the natural logarithm of a billion and see that ln(1,000,000,000) is approximately 20.7 and 1/ln(1,000,000,000) is approximately 0.0483. Thus we have about a 4.83% probability of randomly choosing a prime number out of the first billion integers.

Essay on Changes in the American Diet - 3384 Words

I. Introduction A.nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;This paper will consider the adaptations of the United States to a changing diet, from the early to late twentieth century. B.nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The purpose of this project is to research the evolution in American cuisine throughout the 1900s, towards a more convenience-based pattern of food consumption. The modernization of the United States, particularly in terms of the workforce, will be examined as it relates to a changing diet. Finally, some effects of these changes will be described. II.nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Background: Early Twentieth Century Cooking III.nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Modernization of the United States A.nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Women†¦show more content†¦The purpose of this paper is to review the literature relating to the changes in American diet in the twentieth century. Background will be presented on American food preparation, and the process of modernization will be analyzed. Moreover, the specific alterations to food patterns will be documented, as a parallel to modernization. The negative consequences of the late twentieth century diet will be summarized lastly. Background: Early Twentieth Century Cooking nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The early 1900s saw most American meals prepared in the home by women, characteristically housewives. Caring for the home was considered a full-time career for married women, and the work associated was typically legitimate as such, with the average woman spending forty-four hours a week preparing (and cleaning after) meals, with an additional seven hours for laundry and general housecleaning (Bowers, 2000). Food was prepared from scratch, using coal or wood stoves and water that often needed to be transported from a pump (Bowers, 2000). And this food was prepared for an average household size of 4.8 family members (Bowers, 2000). In 1900, sixty percent of the U.S. population lived in rural areas, and women also did much of the gardening and canning as necessary (Bowers, 2000). Modernization of the United States nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;With the spread of the Industrial Revolution, America became increasingly urbanized, with the urban population surpassing theShow MoreRelatedEssay on Changing Diet from Fast Food to Vegan574 Words   |  3 PagesWould the American diet be easy to change, no it would not but there are good reasons to try. If the American diet was changed to a vegan one then it would help lower obesity, lower diabetes, and lower high blood pressure. Changing the American diet from fast food and high protein meats to a vegan diet would decrease child obesity by 10%, lower diabetes by 2%, and lower high blood pressure by 1%. Diabetes is a disease that means the pancreas cannot produce insulin for the body. Insulin is usedRead MoreAnalysis Of Fast Food By Michael Pollan1134 Words   |  5 PagesPollan expresses his views on what the Western diet is and how Americans need to escape from it. To the author, a type of American diet consists of an excessive amount of fast food and how it can lead to obesity and illnesses. Pollan expresses how he disagrees with the diet and states that both food and health industries are partially to blame for this. Pollan gives his opinion on the food industry, medical community and his own ideas on how to escape this diet. I agree with Michael Pollan’s views inRead MoreThe Macrobiotic Diet Essay1242 Words   |  5 Pagesyear, the number of Americans going on a diet increases. Surveys performed by the federal government demonstrate how prevalent the desire for weight loss is in American society. One federal survey’s findings showed that 44 percent of women and 29 percent of men in America were trying to lose weight on a daily basis (The Science of Slimming ( Cover Story)). Recent figures revealed that 31 percent of Americans fall under the category of being obese, and 64 percent of Americans are overweight (The ScienceRead MoreThe American Diet1026 Words   |  5 PagesThe state of the American Health in the U.S has become an increasing concern of many Americans. An article entitled â€Å"11 Facts about American Eating Habits,† addresses the state of food in the U.S by stating, â€Å"Healthiness of the food we eat decreases by 1.7 percent for every hour that passes in the day.à ¢â‚¬  Experts and scientists in the U.S has raised questions about regarding the different ways food is now being produced. While individuals are usually not aware of the ingredients that food containsRead MoreIn the 1960s the American Heart Association debuted a film named â€Å"Eat to Your Heart’s Content†.1400 Words   |  6 Pages In the 1960s the American Heart Association debuted a film named â€Å"Eat to Your Heart’s Content†. This video brought national attention to saturated fats in the American diet. It inspired an article in the 1969 *Farm Journal* to ask the question, â€Å"Do animal fats cause heart attacks?† Up until the American Heart Association released this video, no health or medical organization had recommended an overall transition from saturated animal fats to unsaturated vegetable oils. According to the article inRead MoreAll Humans Love Food?1711 Words   |  7 Pagesnaturally omnivorous creatures—abstain from eating meats and dairy products. This is specifically referring to the vegan diet, which has arisen in recent years, though still remains at .5% of the U.S. population identifying as vegan according to a 2014 study (Garbett et al. 453). Despite the claims of most Americans in the general population, veganism is actually an entirely viable diet for one to have, and when done correctly, does not produce any negative effects on individuals due to this lack of meatRead MoreEssay on The American Diet1159 Words   |  5 Pages Most Americans do not care enough to take a look at the nutritional values of the food that he or she is consuming. That is why America has the highest percentage of obesity in the world. This is a serious problem because one in every three adults is obese, and one in every six children is obese. There are many factors that go into the regular American diet, but most of those factors are not appealing nor is it healthy. Americans put way too much processed food into their daily diet. Some wouldRead MoreObesity And Obesity Among Hispanic And African American Communities1701 Words   |  7 Pagesbetween exercise/diets with obesity and diabetes among Hispanic and African American populations. The two communities face challenges of contracting diabetes and obesity owing to their lifestyle. There is much to compare among the African American and Hispanic people as far as their culture and observance of healthy living are concerned. The study also presents a future projection of the issues that need addressing to mitigate obesity and diabetes among the Hispanic and African American communities inRead MoreThe American Paradox By Michael Pollan973 Words   |  4 PagesIn Michael Pollan’s essay, â€Å"The American Paradox†, Pollan argues that American’s hold falsified ideas if one is more focused on nutrition. Americans have too much going on in their head with trying to be healthy, that they do not actually become healthy. The notion that â€Å"a notably unhealthy population preoccupied with nutrition and the idea of eating healthy† (Pollan 268) is what Pollan defines as the â€Å"American paradox†. The amount of time spent focusing on healthy eating habits decreases the joyRead MoreEscape from the Western Diet Essay example740 Words   |  3 PagesIn Michael Pollan’s essay â€Å"Escape from the Western Diet,† he informs Americans about the western diet and believes they need to escape from it. The reason Americans should escape the western diet is to avoid the harmful effects associated with it such as â€Å"western diseases† (Pollan, 434). To support his view on the issue, Pollan describes factors of the western diet that dictate what Americans believe they should eat. These factors include scientists with their theories of nutritionism, the food industry

the jungle Essay - 1116 Words

Upton Sinclair was the most famous of the American â€Å"muckraker† journalists. He was born in Baltimore, Maryland on September 20, 1878. Although his family was poor, Sinclair was able to earn money as a writer from a very early age, and was able to save enough money to go to college. He attended the city college of New York and graduated from there with a B.A. degree. Soon after he went to Columbia University to graduate school. It was there that he began writing full-length novels with important social themes. His novels showed that he was concerned with the conditions of working people. During the early part of the twentieth century businesses had very little to restrain them and working class unions were not nearly as common as they are†¦show more content†¦The conditions of work are inhuman, and the workers are treated equally bad. Jurgis’s father is only able to get a job after bribing the boss of the pickling room in a meatpacking plant. The conditions are horrible and in the end kill the old man. Winter brings fresh cruelties. Walking to work in the snow is difficult, the factories are unheated, and for Jurgis the killing beds are fraught with danger due to poor visibility. Marija, however, is soon plunged into gloom when she loses her well-paid job when the canning factory closes down. Marija’s factory re-opens, but she soon loses her job for demanding her rights when she is shorted on her pay. Ona, who is pregnant, is facing trouble at work from her forelady. She realizes that her boss runs a prostitution racket and forcibly uses the girls working at the factory. Ona gives birth to a baby boy, Antanas, names after Jurgis’s father, who has passed away. Weakened by the delivery and forced to return to work within seven days, Ona never recovers her health. Jurgis then sprains an ankle at work, but it turns out to be a pulled tendon and keeps him from work for almost 3 months. During his time of recovery he sees that his family might not make it. He is finally able to work again and gets a job at a horribly unhealthy fertilizer plant. He copes with this job by giving into drinking to help him forget about his problems. Winter comes again and everyone must workShow MoreRelated The Jungle1075 Words   |  5 Pages The Jungle Essay nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The Jungle, by Upton Sinclair, clearly depicts the socio-economic strife and political turpitude that ushered America into the 20th century. While telling the story of Lithuanian immigrants struggling to survive in Chicago, Sinclair illustrates how avarice and ruthless competition were driving forces in the exploitational predatory capitalist  ³jungle ² of American  ³society ² at the turn of the century. This radical novel, described as muckraking by PresidentRead MoreThe Jungle1982 Words   |  8 PagesRunning Head: THE JUNGLE The Jungle [Writer Name] [Institute Name] The Jungle Thesis Statement In this novel Upton Sinclair shows the problems of working class people. His believe in and contempt for capitalism as described in this story â€Å"The Jungle†. The writer explains capitalism in which the labor communities were treated very badly and to survive in the conditions of poverty. The novel rotates around the family of a character Jurgis Rudkus who have immigrated to America from Lithuania. AsRead MoreThe Jungle Analysis1641 Words   |  7 PagesCorruption, lies, adultery, politics, and death are all topics addressed in Upton Sinclair’s 1906 novel The Jungle. The book reveals the atrocities that occurred during the early 1900’s in Chicago’s cruel and disgusting meatpacking district. The Jungle chronicles the struggle of a Lithuanian family that came to America with dreams of making their riches and passing it on to their descendants. Analysis of the novel reveals a recurring theme of how desperation makes people do horrible things such asRead More The Jungle Essay774 Words   |  4 Pages The Jungle by Upton Sinclair Upton Sinclairs The Jungle is the tale of a Lithuanian immigrant, Jurgis Rudkus, and his family. Jurgis and his family move to the United States in the middle of the Industrial Revolution, only to find themselves ill-equipped for the transition in the workplace and in society in general. Jurgis faces countless social injustices, and through a series of such interactions, the theme of the book is revealed: the support of socialism over capitalism as an economic andRead MoreEssay On The Jungle Of Mystery751 Words   |  4 PagesDrew Meyer Taler’s Adventure Once upon a time, there was a tiger named Taler who lived in the Jungle of Mystery. The Jungle of Mystery has flowers of many colors. Taler really liked the blue flowers that grew alongside the cliff. That cliff looked over the waterfall. Her sister, Tara, said, â€Å"Now Taler, do not go near that cliff.† Taler heard what her sister said, but she did it anyway, and everyday Taler would get closer and closer to the edge of the cliff. â€Å"Now Taler, do not go near that cliffRead MoreThe Irony of the Jungle1510 Words   |  7 PagesThe Irony of The Jungle Between 1870 and 1900 Chicago grew from a population of 299,000 to almost 1.7 million, the fastest-growing city ever at the time. This surge in population was largely attributed to immigrants coming from European countries seeking a chance for employment and new freedoms associated with moving to the United States at the time. 1905, in particular, was a historic year when a surge of over 1 million immigrants came to the city. During this time, author Upton SinclairRead MoreDisillusionment In The Jungle1399 Words   |  6 PagesIn the politically righteous book, The Jungle by Upton Sinclair, a newly wed’s feeling of innocence and happiness after their beautiful wedding in their homeland come to an end following the reality of discovering their new life in America. The notion comes from the disillusionment of American freedom and the twisted advertisement of a capitalist system. America was systematically built to be corrupt and dehumanized the significance of individual existence. This was done by easily replacing, deceivingRead MoreThe Jungle Essay1521 Words   |  7 PagesThe Jungle Throughout Upton Sinclair’s novel, The Jungle, the inhumane and disgusting treatment the working men and women was shown to the eyes of the American people. Although what the book is most recognized for is creating the Pure Food and Drug Act, an act that gave consumers protection from dangerous and impure foods, the many various horrors the lower working class had to go through was something that deserved more recognition. Upton Sinclair’s novel, The Jungle, gives an insight on howRead More The Jungle Essay478 Words   |  2 Pages The Jungle By: Upton Sinclair The story opens with the feast at Jurgis and Ona’s wedding in America, but soon flashes back to the time before they left Lithuania. Jurgis met Ona at a horse fair, and fell in love with her. Unfortunately, they were too poor to have a wedding, since Ona’s father just died. In the hopes of finding freedom and fortune, they left for America, bringing many members of Ona’s family with them. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;During time in America, Jurgis and his wifeRead MoreThe Jungle and In the Waiting Room1545 Words   |  7 Pagestoday’s world immigration and emigration has vastly increased. With these increased movements around the world, the lack of communication creates many consequences. Without a language in common the attempt at communication is a difficult process. In The Jungle, Upton Sinclair explores the consequences of language barriers through a new immigrant family. The Lithuanian family do not have the language skills required for their new life in America and everyday life is a struggle. The problems that rise from

Solar Cells Essay Paper Example For Students

Solar Cells Essay Paper Solar cells today are mostly made of silicon, one of the most commonelements on Earth. The crystalline silicon solar cell was one of the firsttypes to be developed and it is still the most common type in use today. They donot pollute the atmosphere and they leave behind no harmful waste products. Photovoltaic cells work effectively even in cloudy weather and unlike solarheaters, are more efficient at low temperatures. They do their job silently andthere are no moving parts to wear out. It is no wonder that one marvels on howsuch a device would function. To understand how a solar cell works, it is necessary to go back to somebasic atomic concepts. In the simplest model of the atom, electrons orbit acentral nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons. each electron carries onenegative charge and each proton one positive charge. Neutrons carry no charge. Every atom has the same number of electrons as there are protons, so, on thewhole, it is electrically neutral. The electrons have discrete kinetic energylevels, which increase with the orbital radius. When atoms bond together to forma solid, the electron energy levels merge into bands. In electrical conductors,these bands are continuous but in insulators and semiconductors there is anenergy gap, in which no electron orbits can exist, between the inner valenceband and outer conduction band Book 1. Valence electrons help to bind togetherthe atoms in a solid by orbiting 2 adjacent nucleii, while conduction electrons,being less closely bound to the nucleii, are free to move in response to anapplied voltage or electric field. The fewer conduction electrons there are, thehigher the electrical resistivity of the material. In semiconductors, the materials from which solar sells are made, theenergy gap Eg is fairly small. Because of this, electrons in the valence bandcan easily be made to jump to the conduction band by the injection of energy,either in the form of heat or light Book 4. This explains why the highresistivity of semiconductors decreases as the temperature is raised or thematerial illuminated. The excitation of valence electrons to the conduction bandis best accomplished when the semiconductor is in the crystalline state, i.e. when the atoms are arranged in a precise geometrical formation or lattice. At room temperature and low illumination, pure or so-called intrinsicsemiconductors have a high resistivity. But the resistivity can be greatlyreduced by doping, i.e. introducing a very small amount of impurity, of theorder of one in a million atoms. There are 2 kinds of dopant. Those which havemore valence electrons that the semiconductor itself are called donors andthose which have fewer are termed acceptors Book 2. In a silicon crystal, each atom has 4 valence electrons, which are sharedwith a neighbouring atom to form a stable tetrahedral structure. Phosphorus,which has 5 valence electrons, is a donor and causes extra electrons to appearin the conduction band. Silicon so doped is called n-type Book 5. On theother hand, boron, with a valence of 3, is an acceptor, leaving so-calledholes in the lattice, which act like positive charges and render thesiliconp-typeBook 5. The drawings in Figure 1.2 are 2-dimensional representationsof n- and p-type silicon crystals, in which the atomic nucleii in the latticeare indicated by circles and the bonding valence electrons are shown as linesbetween the atoms. Holes, like electrons, will remove under the influence of anapplied voltage but, as the mechanism of their movement is valence electronsubstitution from atom to atom, they are less mobile than the free conductionelectrons Book 2. .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f , .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f .postImageUrl , .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f , .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f:hover , .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f:visited , .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f:active { border:0!important; } .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f:active , .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u07c0a54cd67acbbb73fe3003dd24ba4f:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Cask Of Amontillado (829 words) EssayIn a n-on-p crystalline silicon solar cell, a shadow junction is formed bydiffusing phosphorus into a boron-based base. At the junction, conductionelectrons from donor atoms in the n-region diffuse into the p-region and combinewith holes in acceptor atoms, producing a layer of negatively-charged impurityatoms. The opposite action also takes place, holes from acceptor atoms in the p-region crossing into the n-region, combining with electrons and producingpositively-charged impurity atoms Book 4. The net result of these movements isthe disappearance of conduction electrons and holes from the vicinity of thejunction and the establishment t here of a reverse electric field, which ispositive on the n-side and negative on the p-side. This reverse field plays avital part in the functioning of the device. The area in which it is set up iscalled the depletion area or barrier layerBook 4. When light falls on the front surface, photons with energy in excess of theenergy gap (1.1 eV in crystalline silicon) interact with valence electrons andlift them to the conduction band. This movement leaves behind holes, so eachphoton is said to generate an electron-hole pair Book 2. In the crystallinesilicon, electron-hole generation takes place throughout the thickness of thecell, in concentrations depending on the irradiance and the spectral compositionof the light. Photon energy is inversely proportional to wavelength. The highlyenergetic photons in the ultra-violet and blue part of the spectrum are absorbedvery near the surface, while the less energetic longer wave photons in the redand infrared are absorbed deeper in the crystal and further from the junctionBook 4. Most are absorbed within a thickness of 100 m. The electrons and holes diffuse through the crystal in an effort to producean even distribution. Some recombine after a lifetime of the order of onemillisecond, neutralizing their charges and giving up energy in the form of heat. Others reach the junction before their lifetime has expired. There they areseparated by the reverse field, the electrons being accelerated towards thenegative contact and the holes towards the positive Book 5. If the cell isconnected to a load, electrons will be pushed from the negative contact throughthe load to the positive contact, where they will recombine with holes. Thisconstitutes an electric current. In crystalline silicon cells, the currentgenerated by radiation of a particular spectral composition is directlyproportional to the irradiance Book 2. Some types of solar cell, however, donot exhibit this linear relationship. The silicon solar cell has many advantages such as high reliability,photovoltaic power plants can be put up easily and quickly, photovoltaic powerplants are quite modular and can respond to sudden changes in solar input whichoccur when clouds pass by. However there are still some major problems with them. They still cost too much for mass use and are relatively inefficient withconversion efficiencies of 20% to 30%. With time, both of these problems will besolved through mass production and new technological advances in semiconductors. Bibliography1) Green, Martin Solar Cells, Operating Principles, Technology and SystemApplications. New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1989. pg 104-1062) Hovel, Howard Solar Cells, Semiconductors and Semimetals. New York, AcademicPress, 1990. pg 334-3393) Newham, Michael ,Photovoltaics, The Sunrise Industry, Solar Energy, October1, 1989, pp 253-2564) Pulfrey, Donald Photovoltaic Power Generation. Oxford, Van Norstrand Co.,1988. pg 56-615) Treble, Fredrick Generating Electricity from the Sun. New York, PergamonPress, 1991. pg 192-195 Category: Science